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SELECT FROM WHERE UNION SELECT FROM WHERE ORDER ACI ACI IMM REI REI MFR_ID, PRODUCT_ID PRODUCTS PRICE > 2000.00 DISTINCT MFR, PRODUCT ORDERS AMOUNT > 30000.00 BY 1, 2 4100Y 4100Z 775C 2A44L 2A44R

This chapter described how SQL handles queries that combine data from two or more tables: In a multi-table query (a join), the tables containing the data are named in the FROM clause. Each row of query results is a combination of data from a single row in each of the tables, and it is the only row that draws its data from that particular combination. The most common multi-table queries use the parent/child relationships created by primary keys and foreign keys. In general, joins can be built by comparing any pair(s) of columns from the two joined tables, using either a test for equality or any other comparison test. A join can be thought of as the product of two tables from which some of the rows have been removed. A table can be joined to itself; self-joins require the use of a table alias. Outer joins extend the standard (inner) join by retaining unmatched rows of one or both of the joined tables in the query results, and using NULL values for data from the other table. The SQL2 standard provides comprehensive support for inner and outer joins, and for combining the results of joins with other multi-table operations such as unions, intersections, and differences.

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There are severe restrictions on the tables that can be combined by a UNION operation: The two SELECT clauses must contain the same number of columns.

Multiple UNIONs*

6:

You can use the UNION operation repeatedly to combine three or more sets of query results, as shown in Figure 6-16. The union of Table B and Table C in the figure produces a single, combined table. This table is then combined with Table A in another UNION operation. The query in the figure is written this way:

The data type of each column selected from the first table must be the same as the data type of the corresponding column selected from the second table. Neither of the two tables can be sorted with the ORDER BY clause. However, the combined query results can be sorted, as described in the following section. Note that the column names of the two queries combined by UNION do not have to be identical. In the preceding example, the first table of query results has columns named MFR_ ID and PRODUCT_ID, while the second table of query results has columns named MFR and PRODUCT. Because the columns in the two tables can have different names, the columns of query results produced by the UNION operation are unnamed. The original ANSI/ISO SQL standard specified a further restriction on a SELECT statement that participates in a UNION operation. It permits only column names or an allcolumns specification (SELECT *) in the select list and prohibits expressions in the select list. Most commercial SQL implementations relax this restriction and permit simple expressions in the select list. However, many SQL implementations do not allow the SELECT statements to include the GROUP BY or HAVING clauses, and some do not allow column functions in the select list (prohibiting summary queries as described in 8). In fact, some simple SQL implementations do not support the UNION operation at all.

* B * C)

Unions and Duplicate Rows*

- 135 -

Figure 6-16.

Because the UNION operation combines the rows from two sets of query results, it would tend to produce query results containing duplicate rows. For example, in the query of Figure 6-14, product REI-2A44L sells for $4500.00, so it appears in the top set of query results. There is also an order for $31,500.00 worth of this product in the ORDERS table, so it also appears in the bottom set of query results. By default, the UNION operation eliminates duplicate rows as part of its processing. Thus, the combined set of query results contains only one row for product REI-2A44L. If you want to retain duplicate rows in a UNION operation, you can specify the ALL keyword immediately following the word UNION. This form of the query produces two duplicate rows for product REI-2A44L: List all the products where the price of the product exceeds $2,000 or where more than $30,000 of the product has been ordered in a single order.

6:

SELECT FROM WHERE UNION SELECT FROM WHERE ACI REI ACI REI IMM REI REI MFR_ID, PRODUCT_ID PRODUCTS PRICE > 2000.00 ALL DISTINCT MFR, PRODUCT ORDERS AMOUNT > 30000.00; 4100Y 2A44L 4100Z 2A44R 775C 2A44L 2A44R

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